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GUIDE TO INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS Second Edition 1992 Detail Associates, Inc. 300 Grand Avenue Englewood, NJ 07631

Key to Abbreviations ACGIH - American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists AF - atomic formula ASHRAE - American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers AW - atomic weight bp - boiling point BRI - building related illnesses C - temperature in degree centigrade CAS - Chemical Abstracts Service co - cubic centimeter CL - ceiling concentration conc- concentration, concentrated CPSC - U.S. Consumer.Product Safety Commission cum - cubic meter DOT - U.S. Department of Transportation EPA - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency F - temperature in Fahrenheit fp - freezing point H, hr - hour(s) IARC - International Agency for Research on Cancer kg - kilogram LOS0 - lethal concentration 50 percent kill LCLo - lowest published lethal concentration LD~RO - lethal dose 50 percent kill LDLo - lowest published lethal dose I~IF - molecular formula ml - millimeter mp- melting point MW - molecular weight ng- nanogram NIOSH - National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health NTP - National Toxicology Program OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration PCBs - polychlorinated biphenyls PEL - permissible exposure level ppb - parts per billion (v/v) pph - parts per hundred (v/v) (percent) ppm - parts per million (v/v) ppt - parts per trillion (v/v) RCRA - Resource Conservation and Recovery Act REL - Recommended Limit Value RTECS - Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances SARA - Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act SBS - sick building syndrome STEL - short term exposure limit TO - toxic concentration TCLo - lowest published toxic dose TLV - Threshold Limit Value TWA - time-weighted average ug - microgram uL - microliter WHO - Wodd Health Organization

Table of Contents Chapter I Introduction .............................................................................................. 4 1. Background .................................................................................................... ................................... 4 2. Reasons to be Concerned about Indoor Air Quality ........................ ' ................................................ 4 3. Definitions .................................................................................................... ...................................... 5 4. Objectives of This Publication .................................................................................................... ....... 5 Chapter I! Indoor Air Pollution in Residential Houses .= ........................................ 6 1. Sources of indoor Air Pollutants .................................................................................................... ... 6 2. Contamination from Outside Sources ............................................................................................. 6 3. Ventilation .................................................................................................... ...................................... 6 4. Air Exchanges .................................................................................................... ................................ 7 5. Assessing Indoor Air Quality in Homes ............................................................................................ 7 6. Ways of Improving Your Indoor Air Quality .....................................~ ............................................... 8 Chapter II! Indoor Air Pollution in Office Buildings ............................................... 9 1. Background .................................................................................................... .................................... 9 2. Sources of Indoor Air Pollution .................................................................................................... .... 10 3. Ventilation Systems .................................................................................................... ...................... 11 4. Office Equipment as a Source of Indoor Air Pollution .................................................................... 11 5. Evaluating Indoor Air Quality in Offices ............................................................................................ 12 5. Re~-'olving Air Quality Problems in Office Buildings ........................................................................ 13 6. Control Process of Indoor Air Pollution in Buildings ...................................................................... 13 7. Professional Help .................................................................................................... ......................... 14 Chapter IV Evaluation Criteria for Indoor Air Quality ......................................... 16 1. Public Health Standards ..................................................................... i ............................................ 16 2. Occupational Health Standards .................................................................................................... .. 17 3. Evaluation of Existing Standards and Guidelines ........................................................................... 17 Chapter V Common Indoor Air Quality Measurements ......................................... 18 1. Common Sampling Devices .................................................................................................... ....... 18 2. Measurement of Air Flow and Outdoor Air Quantitities ................................................................. 18 3. Air Contaminant Concentrations .................................................................................................... 19 Chapter VI Common Indoor Air Pollutants ........................................................... 21 1. List of Common Indoor Air Pollutants ............................................................................................. 21 2. Biological Hazards .................................................................................................... ....................... 24 3. Common Indoor Air Pollutants .................................................................................................... .... 36 Chapter VI Protocols For Indoor Air Quality Investigations ............................ 199 1. Methodology .................................................................................................... ............................... 199 2. Background Assessment .................................................................................................... ........... 199 3. Initial Site Assessment .................................................................................................... ................ 199 4. Closing Conference .................................................................................................... .................... 200 5. Additional Site Assessments .................................................................................................... ...... 201

Guide to Indoor A~r Pollutants Chapter Vii Indoor Air Quality Program of Detail Associates, inc ..................... 203 Chapter VIII Recommended Sources of Information ......................................... 205 Appendix I References ....................................................................................... 209 Appendix II Indoor Air Quality Qestionnaire ...................................................... 211 Index to Indoor Air Pollutants ................................................................................ 213

Guide to Indoor Air Pollutants Chapter ! Introduction 1. Background In the past two decades, a growing body of scientific evidence has indicated that the air within homes, offices and other buildings has become seriously polluted and can often be even more polluted than the outdoor air of the largest and most industrialized cities. In 1970, when the Clean Air Act was passed to address the problems of urbanization, industrial development and the increasing use of automobiles, the Act was interpreted as applying only to the air external to structures. Most Federal programs concerned with reducing exposure in enclosed spaces have singled out only a handful of individual pollutants for action or control under various Federal Statutes. In the early 1970's, formaldehyde was identified by the Consumer Product Safety Commission as the source of acute irritant reactions and a cancer hazard. Federal programs to address another major in- door air pollutant - asbestos - have been in operation for some time and two major laws have been enacted by Congress to provide loans and grants to schools with severe asbestos hazards and finan- cial need, and to provide a regulatory framework for asbestos control in schools. In the late 1970's and eady 1980's, concern over naturally occurring radon began to rise and in 1984, when extremely high levels of radon were discovered in homes in the Reading Prong geological formation in Pennsyl- vania, New Jersey, and New York, radon became a major indoor air pollution Federal program. In the early 1980's, however, research by EPA and other Federal agencies began to demonstrate that for many pollutants, indoor levels were often higher than outdoor levels. This, coupled with the ex- tremely high percentage of time spent indoors, gave rise to increased concern that indoor air pollution may pose higher health risks to the population than previously thought. In 1986, Congress enacted Title IV of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) to establish an effective research effort aimed at characterizing the extent of the indoor air pollution prob- lem and to begin to take steps to enhance the quality of indoor air. However, to date, no comprehensive legislation to address many of the issues raised by indoor air pol- lution has been enacted. 2. Reasons to be Concerned about Indoor Air Quality Recent research shows that people spend approximately 75-90 percent of their time indoors. Some reasons for concern include: (1) for most people, the health risks posed by indoor air pollution may be greater than that posed by outdoor air; (2) some groups of people who are most vulnerable to the ad- verse effects of indoor air pollution including the elderly, the young, and the chronically ill are exposed to such pollution the most; (3) unlike other risks, the health risks caused by indoor air pollution can be reduced, if not avoided or eliminated totally; (4) the need for energy conservation has lead to reduced infiltration and ventilation; and (5) synthetic materials with their attendants offgassing have been used more and more extensively in homes and offices. 4 Detail Associates, Inc.

Guide to Indoor Air Pollutants Definitions Health: this term is defined by the World Health Organization as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being; not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". Air Quality: the nature of air that affects your health and well-being. Acceptable Air Quality: air in which there are no known contaminants at harmful concentrations and with which a substantial majority (usually 80%) of the people exposed do not express dissatisfaction. 4. Objectives of This Publication This presentation has two objectives: (1) to educate the public about the nature of the indoor air pollu- tion problem and alerting the public to the seriousness and potential danger of the problem; and (2) to provide information to the public on how to prevent, control and remediate the problem promptly if they do arise. Detail Associates, Inc. 5

Ou'Idc to Indoor Air Pollutants Chapter !i Indoor Air Pollution in Residential Houses 1. Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants The gases or particles released by indoor pollution sources into the air are the primary cause of indoor air quality problems in homes. The indoor air pollutants can be divided into the following categories: a. Oil, gas, kerosene, coal, or wood combustion sources; b. Building materials and furnishings as diverse as deteriorated asbestos-containing insulation, wet or damp carpeting, and cabinet or furniture made of certain pressed wood products; c. Products for household cleaning and maintenance, personal care, or hobbies;, d. Central heating and cooling systems and humidification devices; e. Tobacco smoke; f. Contaminated outdoor air such as pollen, dust, fungal spores, industrial pollutants, general vehicle exhaust, odors from dumpsters, re-entrained exhaust from the building itself or from neighboring build- ings, unsanitary debris near the outdoor air intake. g. Soil gas such as radon, leakage from underground fuel tanks, pesticides, previous landfills, etc. h. Personal activities such as smoking, cooking, body odor and cosmetic odors. The importance of an individual pollutant source depends on a number of factors such as the amount of pollutant emission by the source and the level of hazard posed by the pollutant to people. Often, pollutants released by one single source may not cause a significant risk to the residents, however, there can be a much more serious health risk to the residents when pollutants are emitted from a num- ber of sources and are accumulated in residential houses. 2. Contamination from Outside Sources Indoor air can also be contaminated from sources outside the house. This occurs primarily when pol- lutants from automobile exhausts, plumbing vents, and building exhausts enter the building through improperly located outside intakes, windows, and other openings. In addition, combustion products such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide can enter a building f~om an attached or underground garage. 3. Ventilation When the outside air flow through a house is low, the pollutants emitted from various sources in the homes can accumulate and pose a health problem or discomfor~ to the residents of homes. There- fore, exchange of air is very important in reducing indoor air contaminant levels. Some homes are designed to minimize the amount of air leaking into and going out of them, thus may have a higher possibility to accumulate indoor.air pollutants unless they have a well-designed ventilation system. However, even homes normally considered "leaky" can build up the level of pollutants under certain weather conditions. 6 Detail Associates, Inc. ~

Guide to Indoor.Air Pollutants 4. Air Exchanges Outside air enters a house in three ways: (a) infiltration - air flows through construction joints and cracks around windows and doors, in the foundation, or from crawl spaces underneath homes; (b) natural ventilation- air enters through opened windows and doors; and (c) mechanical ventilation. When there is little or no air exchange with the outdoors, a building is poorly ventilated, and indoor air pollution increases. Therefore, provision of adequate makeup air should be ensured at all times. 5. Assessing Indoor Air Quality in Residential Houses 5.1 Symptoms If you think that you have symptoms that may be related to the indoor environment in your home, you should consult your doctor or your local health department whether such symptoms could be caused by indoor air pollution. You may also want to consult ,i board-certified allergist or a specialist in oc- cupational medicine for answers to your questions. If your symptoms are possibly connected with the indoor air quality in your home, identify possible sources of contamination. It is prudent to try to improve the indoor air quality in your home even if symptoms are not noticeable. The earliest symptoms of long-term health problems, such as some respiratory illnesses and cancer, do not appear until years after the initial exposure. 5.2 Identification of Potential Sources An effective way to judge whether your home has or could develop indoor air problems is to identify potential sources of indoor air pollution, though the presence of such sources does not necessarily mean that you have an indoor air quality problem. Being aware of the type and number o~f potential sources is an important step toward assessing the air quality in your home. 5.3 Personal Hygiene and Pets Household pets such as cats and dogs are sources of saliva and animal dander and can cause serious indoor air quality problems. People and animals are carriers of viruses and bacteria. You should check your own lifestyle and personal hygiene as they can be significant sources of indoor air pollution. 5.4 Signs of Problem You should look for signs of indoor air problem including odorous or stuffy air, dirty central heating and air cooling equipment, damaged flues and chimneys, moisture condensation on windows or walls, signs of water leakage, idle water near air intake points outside windows, and areas where books, shoes, or other items acquire molds. 5.5 Measurement of Indoor Air Pollutants Air testing/measurement is the most effective way to find out the actual level of indoor air pollutants in your home, especially when certain health symptoms are noticed and when certain sources of con- tamination are suspected in your home. Currently, the Federal government recommends that you measure the level of radon in your home. Though measurement of certain pollutants such as radon can be performed by yourself with inexpensive devices available on the market, it is recommended that air testing for your indoor air pollutants should be carried out by an expert in order to achieve ac- curate test results and correct interpretations of the results. Such measurements by experts wilt also allow thwm to provide a full range of recommendations to encounter each specific indoor air quality problem. Detail Associates, Inc. 7

Guide to Indoor Air Pollutants 6. Ways of Improving Your Indoor Air Quality 6.1 Pollutant Source Control This is the most obvious and effective means of protecting indoor air quality and residents of your home, especially when specific sources of contamination are identified. With this approach, actions can be taken to eliminate or reduce the emissions from a pollutant source, and may be used in com- bination with increased ventilation to dilute the indoor pollutant level. Specific steps that you can take to control indMdual sources of indoor air pollution in your home are given later in Chapter V, Com- mon Indoor Air Pollutants. 6.2 Ventilation Improvement The level of indoor air pollutants can be reduced by increasing the amount of outside air coming in- doors by means of natural ventilation and/or mechanical ventilation. When weather permits, natural ventilation can be increased by opening windows and doors. By turning on a local exhaust fan in the kitchen or bathroom, you can lower pollution levels by removing contaminants from the room where the fan is located. Additional ventilation should be provided to dilute or exhaust contaminated air when you are involved in short-term activities that can generate high levels of pollutants. Another way to increase the mechanical ventilation rate is to install heat recovery ventilators in homes. These devices increase ventilation by drawing outside air into the home and conserve energy by recovering the heat from air that is exhausted to the outdoors. 6.3 Air Cleaners They can be used in combination with source control and ventilation. There are many types and sizes of air cleaners on the market: some of them are highly effective at particle removal, while others, in- cluding most tabletop models, are much less efficient. Both the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Consumer Protection Safety Commission (CPSC) plan to undertake more studies to evaluate the effectiveness of air cleaners that are on the market today and to identify improvements in the way air cleaners can be designed, operated and maintained. 6.4 Education This is a very important control method. If home residents fully understand the sources and effects of indoor contaminants, they can act~together to reduce the indoor pollutant exposures. 8 Detail Associates, Inc.

Guide to Indoor Air Pollutants Chapter I!! Indoor Air Pollution in Office Buildings 1. Background 1.1 1.2 1.3 The air we breathe while at work can affect our job performance, general sense of well being, and our health. Twenty-five percent of America's employees work in an office environment with mechanical heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems. An increasing number of these office employees are experiencing work-related health problems. The problems caused by indoor con- taminants have become more prevalent within the last 10 years. One primary cause has been the need to reduce the amount of energy required for heating and cooling office buildings. The method most often used to reduce this energy consumption has been to '~ighten" the building to prevent the gain or loss of air which requires to be conditioned. Tightly closed buildings prevents the removal and dilution by outside air of the pollutants generated by an increasing variety and quantity of synthetic materials introduced into the indoor environment. Indoor pollutants, building up faster than they can be diluted, result in occupant discomfort and complaints of stuffiness, eye irritation, fatigue, drowsi- ness, nausea, and stale air. The presence of indoor air pollutants has been associated with reports of recent terms such as "sick building syndrome" and "building-related illnesses". - Sick Buildings A building is characterized as "sick" when its occupants complain of health and comfort problems that can be related to working or being in the building. Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) Problems associated with buildings are "sick building syndrome (SBS)". The symptoms of SBS in- clude: a. A substantial percentage of building occupants complain of symptoms associated with acute dis- comfort - headache; eye, nose or throat irritation; dry cough; dry or itchy skin; dizziness and nausea; difficulty in concentration; fatigue; and sensitivity to odors. b. The cause of the symptoms is not known. c. Most of the complainants report relief upon leaving the building. Building Related Illness (BRI) Problems connected with sick buildings are also called "building related illnesses (BRI)". When oc- cupant exposure to indoor contaminants results in a clinically defined illness, disease of infirmity, the building is said to manifest building-related illnesses. The symptoms of BRt include: a. Complaints of symptoms such as cough; chest tightness; fever; chills; and muscle aches which can be associated with illness. b. The cause or causes of the symptoms are believed to be exposure to indoor pollutants. c. Complainants may require prolonged recovery times after leaving the building. Detail Associates, Inc. 9